Clausal conjunctives I (연결 어미)

This unit discusses some major characteristics of Korean clausal conjunctives, and then introduces three clausal conjunctives, ~(으)러, ~(으)려고, and ~도록, that indicate the purpose or intention of the speaker.

Clausal conjunctives

Clausal conjunctives are used to link two or more clauses and to add special meanings, such as simultaneous actions, contrastive actions or states, paralleling actions, and so on. Examples of English clausal conjunctives include “and,” “whereas,” “while,” and “though.”
Korean has an extensive list of clausal conjunctives that indicate various meanings, such as “and (~고),” “because/and then (~어/아서),” “while (~으면서),” “although (~지만),” “in order to (~도록),” and so forth. Korean clausal conjunctives are non-sentence-final endings, since they attach to the predicate stem of the preceding clause. Consider how the conjunctive ~(으)면서 “while” serves to connect two different clauses:

In the example above, the conjunctive ~(으)면서 attaches to the verb stem of the first clause 먹(eat) and indicates the new meaning “while” to the first clause: 팝콘을 먹어요(I eat popcorn) changes to 팝콘을 먹으면서(while eating popcorn). Notice that the conjunctive ~(으)면서 is not a sentence-final ending, since it does not end the sentence. Instead, ~어/아요 in the main clause (or the second clause) is the sentence-final ending since it attaches to the verb stem of the main clause 보(see) and ends the whole sentence. Consider another example:

The clausal conjunctive ~고(and) links two clauses: 눈이 내리다(Snow falls) and 바람이 불다(Wind blows). Again, the conjunctive ~고 ends the verb stem of the first clause 내리다(fall), while the deferential speech level ending ~습니다/ㅂ니다 ends both the verb stem of the main clause 불다(blow) as well as the whole sentence.

Restrictions

Some Korean clausal conjunctives may be subject to various restrictions regarding how they are used in sentences.

Tense agreement

The first restriction concerns the tense agreement. Since a clausal conjunctive connects two different clauses, there are at least two predicates within a clausal-conjunctive sentence. In English, the tense of each clause embedded within the sentence must be the same. Consider the following example:

The above sentence is grammatically incorrect because the tense of the two predicates is not the same. In contrast to English, the tense of each clause can be different in Korean. This is possible because some Korean conjunctives are not conjugated for the tense. Consider the following examples:

Notice that both sentences are about past actions. In the first example, both the conjunctive ~지만(although) in the first clause as well as the predicate of the main clause 받다 take the past tense marker. However, in the second example, the conjunctive ~어/아서(because) of the first clause does not take the past tense marker but only the predicate of the main clause 받다.

Subject agreement

The second restriction concerns the subject agreement. Some conjunctives can have different subjects, while some cannot. In other words, for some conjunctives, the subject of the clauses within a sentence must be the same. Consider the following examples:

In the first example, each clause has its own subject. However, in the second example, both clauses have the same subject.

Predicate types

The third restriction is about whether the conjunctive may be used with adjectives, copulas, and/or verbs. Some conjunctives must be used only with verbs, whereas some conjunctives may be used with verbs, adjectives, as well as copulas. For instance, the conjunctive ~지만(although) can be attached to verb, adjective, and copula stems, as shown below:

On the other hand, a certain conjunctive such as ~(으)려고(in order to) must be used only with verb stems.

Sentence types

The fourth restriction is that there are conjunctives that can be used for all sentence types, such as declarative, interrogative, imperative, and propositive, while some conjunctives must be used only for certain sentence types. For instance, consider the conjunctive ~(으)니까 and ~어/아서, which both mean “because/since.”

Notice that ~(으)니까 can be used for all sentence types, whereas ~어/아서 must be used only for declarative and interrogative sentences.

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Grammar for Intermediates

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Auxiliary verbs IV (~어/아 있다, ~어/아하다, ~어/아지다)

~어/아 있다

The verb 있다 means “exist/stay/have”, as shown in the following examples:

As an auxiliary verb, ~어/아 있다 is mainly used with intransitive verbs and is used to indicate that the state brought about by the action of the main verb persists. Compare the following three sentences:

The first sentence simply states what Tommy does. The second sentence indicates the progressive action of the main verb. On the other hand, 어/아 있다 in the third sentence indicates that the state resulting from the main verb continues to exist. Consider another three sentences:

The first sentence simply indicates that the door opens. The second sentence indicates the progressive action. The third sentence, however, indicates the continuous state, brought about by the main verb 열리다(to be opened). Here are more examples of ~어/아 있다:

Meanwhile, a limited number of verbs of “wearing” do not take the ~어/아 있다 pattern but the ~고 있다 pattern to indicate the resultant state. For instance, to say “(I) am wearing socks” is 양말을 신고 있어요 not 양말을 신어 있어요.

~어/아하다

The aforementioned auxiliary verbs are all mainly used with verbs. However, Korean has a limited number of auxiliary verbs that are used primarily with adjectives, such as ~어/아하다 and ~어/아지다.
In English, one can state how another person feels, using emotion- or sense-related adjectives, such as “sad”, “happy”, and “cold”. For instance, it is grammatically correct to say a sentence like “Lisa is sad” or “Peter is cold”. However, in Korean, one cannot use adjectives to express how a third person or people feel or think. Since Korean emotive and/or sensory adjectives denote unobservable internal feelings, a speaker cannot speak for how other people feel or think. Consequently, a sentence like 리사가 슬퍼요(Lisa is sad) is grammatically incorrect.
In order to speak for a third person’s or people’s feelings or emotions, one has to change an emotive or sensory adjective into a verb form, using the auxiliary verb construction ~어/아하다, as shown below:

For instance, compare the following three sentences:

Notice that when the subject of the sentence is the third person, a verb 피곤해하다(feel tired) is used instead of the adjective 피곤하다(be tired). In addition, note that unlike other auxiliary verb compounding structures that normally require a space between the main verb and the auxiliary verb, as in 열어 놓다(open for later), ~어/아하다 does not leave a space between the main adjective and 하다 . This is due to the Korean spelling convention.
Meanwhile, when speaking of another person’s emotion or feeling in the past tense, one can use an adjective. This is because the speaker could have information about the third person’s internal feeling. Consider the following examples:

Notice that 슬펐어요 as well as 슬퍼했어요 are both acceptable, since both refer to the third person’s feeling in the past tense.

~어/아지다

The verb 지다 means “bear/owe”, as shown in the following examples:

However, as an auxiliary verb, ~어/아 지다 is typically used with an adjective, and it is used to express a gradually intensified change that occurs in the meaning of the adjective. It can be translated as “become/begin to be/get to be” in English. For instance, compare the following two sentences:

Notice in the second sentence that ~어/아지다 changes the adjective 춥다(cold) into an intransitive verb, 추워지다(becomes cold). In addition, the auxiliary verb ~어/아지다 adds the meaning of progressive change in the meaning of the adjective. Moreover, just like ~어/아하다, ~어/아지다 does not leave a space between the main adjective and 지다. Here are more examples:

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Grammar for Intermediates
Irregular verbs and adjectives (불규칙동사와 형용사)
Auxiliary verbs I
Auxiliary verbs II
Auxiliary verbs III
Auxiliary verbs IV

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Auxiliary verbs III (~어/아 주다, ~어/아 놓다, ~어/아 두다)

~어/아 주다

The verb 주다 means “give”, as shown in the following examples:

However, as an auxiliary verb, ~어/아 주다 means “do something as a
favor (for someone)”.

Compare the following two sentences:

Notice that the first sentence simply expresses that David came to the party. On the other hand, the second sentence signifies that David came to the party for the benefit of the speaker or somebody. Here are more examples:

However, one can optionally use 위해서(on the behalf of) when wishing to explicitly state who the beneficiary was.

~어/아 드리다 vs. ~어/아 주다

Meanwhile, if the beneficiary of the action is an esteemed person, ~어/아 드리다 is used instead of ~어/아 주다. Compare the following two sentences:

The second sentence with ~어/아 주다 is inappropriate since the beneficiary of the action is an esteemed person. Here are more examples:

Requesting ~어/아 주세요

The verb 주시다 is the honorific form of 주다. ~어/아 주세요 is used when requesting something politely. It is equivalent to “please do (something for me/someone)”. Compare the following two sentences:

Both sentences can be used for requesting. However, the second sentence with ~어/아 주세요 is more polite than the first sentence. Here are more examples:

~어/아 놓다(or ~어/아 두다)

The verb 놓다 means “release/place/put down”, as in:

However, as an auxiliary verb, what ~어/아 놓다 can express is twofold. First, ~어/아 놓다 is used to indicate the continuation of a certain action or state after the completion of the action or state. For instance, compare the following sentences:

The verb 켜다 means “turns on (an electric lamp)”. Notice that the action of the main verb 켜다 is completed for both sentences, since they are marked by the past tense. However, while the first sentence simply indicates the past action, the second sentence with the auxiliary verb ~어/아 놓다 indicates the continuation of the completed action. Here are more examples:

Second, ~어/아 놓다 means “doing something for later (future use)”. Compare the following two sentences:

Notice that the first sentence simply indicates the past action, 마셨어요(drank). However, the auxiliary verb ~어/아 놓다 in the second sentence indicates that the past action was done for later. Here are more examples:

Alternatively, the verb 두다 can be used instead of 놓다. The verb 두다 means “place/keep”, as shown in the following examples:

As an auxiliary verb, the meaning of ~어/아 두다 is similar to that of ~어/아 놓다. In fact ~어/아 두다 and ~어/아 놓다 can be used interchangeably, as shown below:

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Grammar for Intermediates
Irregular verbs and adjectives (불규칙동사와 형용사)
Auxiliary verbs I
Auxiliary verbs II
Auxiliary verbs III
Auxiliary verbs IV

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Auxiliary verbs II (~어/아 내다, ~어/아 버리다, ~고 말다)

~어/아 내다

The verb 내다 means “produce/put forth” as in 용기를 내세요(Put forth courage) or 속도를 내세요(Speed up, lit. Produce speed). However, as an auxiliary verb, ~어/아 내다 means “do all the way (to the very end)”. It is used to express that although a certain task/action is troublesome or difficult, he/she completes the action to the very end (or does all the way). Compare the following two examples:

Notice that the first sentence simply indicates that the speaker finished reading the book in one day. On the other hand, the second sentence with ~어/아 내다 implies that although reading the book within a day was a difficult task, the speaker did it anyway. Here are more examples:

~어/아 버리다

The verb 버리다 means “throw (it) away/dismiss/abandon”, as shown in the following examples:

However, as an auxiliary verb ~어/아 버리다 means “do completely/end up doing/get (it) done”. Compare the following sentences:

The basic meanings of both sentences are the same. However, the message of the second sentence is stronger than the first sentence, since ~어/아 버리다 adds the meaning of “completeness of the action”.
~어/아 버리다 is similar to ~어/아 내다 in a sense that both are used to indicate the completeness of an action. However, unlike ~어/아 내다, ~어/아 버리다 does not imply that the completed action was a difficult task. Instead, depending on the context, ~어/아 버리다 is used to express a sense of regret or relief. Consider the following examples:

Losing a wallet is undesirable. Consequently, ~어/아 버리다 in the second sentence adds the sense of regret, while the first sentence simply states the past action. It indicates that losing a wallet is not what the speaker had expected or wished for. Here are more examples that may denote a sense of regret:

~어/아 버리다 can also signify a sense of relief. Consider the following two sentences:

Notice that the referential messages of both sentences are the same. However, ~어/아 버리다 in the second sentence adds a sense of relief since the task has come to an end. Here are more examples that indicate a sense of relief:

~고 말다

The verb 말다 means “stop”, as in 눈이 오다가 말았어요(It snowed but then it stopped). However, as an auxiliary verb, ~고 말다 means “end up (doing)”, and it implies that the completed action is against the subject’s intention or wish. It is used when the action is carried out despite the subject’s previous effort or wishes against the completed action. Compare the following two sentences:

Notice that the completed action (dying) is against the subject’s will. Here are more examples:

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Grammar for Intermediates
Irregular verbs and adjectives (불규칙동사와 형용사)
Auxiliary verbs I
Auxiliary verbs II
Auxiliary verbs III
Auxiliary verbs IV

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Auxiliary verbs I (~어/아 보다, ~ 어/아 오다, ~ 어/아 가다)

An auxiliary verb combines with a main verb to express tense, aspect, mood and/or voice. For instance, English auxiliary verbs include “can”, “have”, “may”, “shall”, and “will”, since they combine with a main verb, as in “I can speak Korean.” This unit first discusses some general structural characteristics of Korean auxiliary verbs. Then, it introduces how the following three verbs, 보다(see), 오다(come), and 가다(go), can serve as auxiliary verbs.

Korean auxiliary verbs

Korean auxiliary verbs are in fact all regular verbs. However, when these verbs are used as auxiliary verbs, they express different meanings, as shown below:

Korean auxiliary verbs always appear after the main verb (or adjectives for limited auxiliary verbs). In addition, the main verb is always conjugated with ~어/아 (or ~고 for limited auxiliary verbs). The compounding process takes the following pattern: [stem of the main verb ~어/아 plus an auxiliary verb]. ~아 is used after the stem that ends in 아 or 오, while ~어 is used after the stem that ends in all other vowels.

~어/아 보다

When the verb 보다(see) is used as an auxiliary verb, it is used to express “try (doing something)/experience”. It is used when a speaker tries doing some action just once so that he/she can explore the consequences. For instance, consider how the auxiliary verb ~어/아 보다 is used with the main verb 배우다(learn).

Notice in the examples above that ~어/아 보다 completes each expression and carries all grammatical information, such as tense, sentence types, and honorifics. Here are more examples:

~ 어/아 오다(가다)

Korean has two motion verbs 오다(come) and 가다(go). When these motion verbs are used as auxiliary verbs, both indicate that an action of the main verb is carried out continually. Since 오다(come) signifies the motion toward the speaker, ~어/아 오다 is used to express an continuous action that comes toward the present, as shown below:

On the other hand, 가다(go) indicates the motion away from the speaker. Consequently, ~어/아 가다 is used to express a continuous action that goes into the future.

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Grammar for Intermediates
Irregular verbs and adjectives (불규칙동사와 형용사)
Auxiliary verbs I
Auxiliary verbs II
Auxiliary verbs III
Auxiliary verbs IV

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